Change Process Theories

Change Process Theories: A Review Outline Introduction Four types of Organizational Change Theories: Van de Ven and Poole †¢ Dialectical: Kurt Lewin †¢ Evolution: o Lippitt, Watson, and Wesley o Bartlett and Kayser †¢ Teleology: o Edgar Schein o Prochaska and DiClemente †¢ Life Cycle: Ichak Adizes Conclusion Introduction An enduring quest of management scholars is to explain how and why organizations change. The processes of change or sequences of events have been difficult to define, let alone manage. Researchers have borrowed many concepts from many fields of study, including sociology, biology, and physics. Van de Ven and Poole (1995) proposed four categories of organizational change: dialectical, evolution, teleological and life cycle. Dialectical theory is the development of an organization through the conflict, competition, and/or collaboration of internal or external interests, wherein the status quo is changed regardless of the overall benefit or detriment to the organization. Evolutionary theory views organizational change as the cumulative change brought about through the continuous cycle of variation, selection and incorporation, and retention, caused by competition for scarce resources, environmental change or imposed conditions. Teleology is the purposeful development of an organization towards a defined end result or in line with a predetermined collective ideology by means of repetitive sequences of goal definition, implementation, evaluation and modification. Finally, Life Cycle theory is the linear, organic development of an organization from a homogenous, undefined entity to a differentiated, structured entity through accumulated experiences arising from the pressure of external events as mediated by internal logic, rules or programs. Within these four categories, I present six theories of organizational change to illustrate the underlying concepts within each category. Dialectical Theory Kurt Lewin is widely regarded as one of the pioneers in the study of change processes. A social scientist, Lewin postulated that human behavior is based on a relatively stationary equilibrium of two groups of forces. While driving forces facilitate change by pushing in the desired direction, counterforces known as restraining forces immediately sprout to hinder the change. When a significant change in these forces occurs, behavior must also shift to maintain equilibrium. After equilibrium is reached, the new behaviors gradually become the standard for maintaining the status quo. Lewin described this process in his article, Frontiers in Group Dynamics: â€Å"A change toward a higher level of group performance is frequently short lived; after a â€Å"shot in the arm† group life soon returns to the previous level. This indicates that it does not suffice to define the objective of planned change in group performance as the reaching of a different level. Permanency of the new level, or permanency for a desired period, should be included in the objective. A successful change includes, therefore, three aspects: unfreezing (if necessary) the present level, moving to the new level, and freezing group life on the new level† (p 34). The Evolutionary Theories Lippitt, Watson, and Westley expanded on Lewin’s work by introducing the idea of a relationship between the change agent and the ‘client’ or organization to be changed. Lippitt et al. ’s theory proposes seven phases. The first phase focuses on developing a need for change. A client must not only be aware of a problematic situation, but must believe a better state of affairs is possible, and that the change agent (whether a consultant or method) is relevant and available. Phase two is the establishment of a change relationship. As with any human relationship, one of the most delicate yet absolutely crucial elements in forming the change relationship is the first impression. â€Å"Often the client system seems to be seeking assurance that the potential change agent is different enough from the client system to be a real expert and yet enough like it to be horoughly understandable and approachable† (Lippitt et al. p 134). Phases three, four, and five are an elaboration on Lewin’s moving stage, and can be grouped together under the heading: moving toward change. These straightforward phases are (3) Clarification or Diagnosis of the client’s problem (4) Examination of the Alternative Routes and Goals and Establishing Goals and Intention s of Action, and (5) Transformation of Intentions into Actual Change Efforts. Lippitt et al. return to Lewin’s Refreezing stage with phase six: The generalization and stabilization of change. A critical factor in the stabilization of change is the spread of change to neighboring systems. A change is much more likely to be retained if reinforced by colleagues’ usage. The final phase, achieving a terminal relationship, focuses on preventing a dependency on the change agent for support and developing a form of client self-reliance for future problem-solving. Lippitt et al. issue a final caution, noting that the seven phases present are not always sequential, and the phases can overlap or repeat themselves throughout the change process. Bartlett and Kayser (1973) propose that successful change depends on a reactive redistribution of power within the structure of an organization. This power redistribution optimally occurs through a six phase series of stimuli and reactions. Stimulus 1: Pressure on top management takes the form of both internal pressure (such as union strikes, low productivity, high costs or interdepartmental conflict) and external pressure (such as lower sales, stockholder discontent, or a competitor's breakthrough. When these pressures offset one another, e. g. high sales despite employee grumbling, there is little incentive for top management to induce change. However, when internal and external pressures are aligned, Reaction 1: Arousal to take action senior management seeks a consultant or other diagnostic tool to discover the problem. Stimulus 2: Intervention at the top – While long-term managers tend to look for individuals and groups to blame, â€Å"outsiders† tend to see the org anizational structure or processes as equally likely culprits. The â€Å"outsider†, presumably hired and respected for his expert ability to improve organizational practices, is in an ideal position to Reaction 2: Reorient top management to internal problems. In order to Stimulus 3: Diagnose problem areas effectively, top management speaks with multiple levels of the organization. This step largely determines the success of the change. Top menagers who only consult their immediate subordainates gather little to no new data. Managers who conduct a comprehensive hierarchy-spanning feedback search not only acquiremore information but have a positive reinforcing effect on the change to come. By consulting all hierarchy levels, managers achieve employee buy-in, drawing employees to believe that not is management itself willing to change, but actual important problems are being acknowledged and ideas from lower levels are being valued by upper levels (Bartlett and Kaser, 1973, p. 58). In contrast, manager who take a unilateral approach are making changes based on limited viewpoints with little to no employee buy-in. Perhaps even worse is the CEO who delegates the change to a subordinate, who potentially has less information, less clout within the organization, and the lingering uncertainty that top management isn't sincere about the change. Reaction 3: Recognition of specific problems found through the diagnosis process will cause deliberation resulting in the Stimulus 4: Invention of a new solution. Suggestions for solutions can be gathered in phase 3. Barlett and Kayser place particular importance on group collaboration for generating potential solutions. Through this collaboration, there is greater Reaction 4: Commitment to the new courses of action. Stimulus 5: Experimentation with new solutions inevitably produces occasional setbacks and/or outright failure. During this period, the multi-level employee endorsement of change becomes critical as the organization Reaction 5: Reviews the results of the change. While non-effective ‘solutions' are thrown out, effective solutions are propagated and expanded. Ideally, the quietly discarded solutions only briefly demoralize their advocates, while the retained superior solutions have an infectiously positive effect. Finally, this Stimulus 6: Reinforcement from positive results ushers in a full scale Reaction 6: Acceptance of the new practices. Teleological Theories Edgar Schein further defined Lewin's three stage theory, proposing that the Unfreezing stage can be subdivided into three steps: Disconfirmation, Induction of Guilt or â€Å"survival anxiety†, and Creation of Psychological Safety. Disconfirmation is characterized by the dissatisfaction and/or frustration with the current state of affairs. Survival anxiety occurs when the dissatisfiers are accepted as valid and linked to the nonattainment of goals. The primary restraining force at this stage is learning anxiety – having to admit that the current behaviors are â€Å"wrong† and the additional fear that attempting a new process may result in failure and a loss of esteem. The Creation of Psychological Safety step is the addressing and overcoming of this fear. Schein further subdivided Lewin’s theory by splitting the moving process into three phases. The first phase, Cognitive Redefinition is typified by organizational members discovering that the definitions, concepts and other anchors previously relied upon are not absolutes. While the unfreezing stages create motivation for change, the second phase, termed Imitation and Identification with a Role Model, determines whether the change is beneficial or harmful, depending on the role model chosen. However, if there are no attractive role models, the third phase, Scanning of Alternatives and Trial and Error, comes into play. Occasionally, if there is sufficient psychological safety, spontaneous insight into a solution may occur. This spontaneous insight is highly valuable because such insights often take into account both stated and hidden unique obstacles to a change, unlike process consultants who often can only address the stated barriers. With regard to the Refreezing stage, Schein notes that the new behaviors must be at least somewhat compatible with the remaining behaviors or the cycle of disconfirmation may restart, potentially reversing the progress made, or devolving into an endless cycle of new behaviors. Prochaska et al (1992) developed a change behavior model for the health care field which has gradually been extended to other disciplines. Much like Lewin's model, their model defines the general process of change. Unlike Lewin, Prochaska et al. present their five stages of behavioral change as cyclical in nature rather than as a simple progression. Please see figure 1. Precontemplation (PC) is the stage at which there is no intention to change behavior in the near future. Typically, an external force such as a lawsuit or technological advancement occurs to push an organization into the next stage. Contemplation (C) is the stage where the problem or undesirable behavior is recognized, and serious consideration is given to change the behavior. This stage is characterized by the weighing of current opportunity costs against the actual costs of modifying the problem. Preparation (PP) is a stage that combines intention and initial attempts to change behaviors. The organization intends a full transformation of the indicated ‘problem behaviors' in the very near future. The cessation of undesirable behaviors and embrace of the new behaviors marks the advent of the Action (A) stage. The Maintenance (M) stage is often, and incorrectly, viewed as a static stage. In truth, this stage is the continuation and reinforcement of the new behaviors. This stage becomes particularly pertinent when the initial attitude of ‘new and improved' begins wearing thin and organizational members consciously or subconsciously attempt to return to the ‘old and trusted' methods. This backslide can continue (precontemplation) until the problem is once again addressed (contemplation). Life Cycle Theory In his 1998 book, Adizes presents one of the clearest descriptions and in depth refinements of Life Cycle organizational development models to date. Based on ten sequential stages of development, he addresses the attitudes, issues, and threats at each stage of life. These life stages are categorized into the growing phase, second birth and coming of age, and aging organizations. Please see figure 2 for reference. (In the interest of brevity, a few potential alternative stages have been omitted. ) The Growing Phase begins with the courtship stage where the organization is only an idea in the founder’s mind. At this time, the founder is building inspirational momentum – revving his courage so that when the time comes to make the decision to take the risk, he has the internal commitment to survive the external doubts and hardships. During the courtship stage, this commitment determines whether the idea will result in a healthy organizational child or if it is merely an affair, a momentary infatuation with entrepreneurship. Once the risk has been undertaken, the nature of the organization mutates drastically. At this Infancy stage of the organization, there is an overriding emphasis on doing rather than thinking; thinking of new products may be useful in the future, but sale of current products ensures a future will exist. The organization is incredibly personal, with little hierarchy. Formal procedures are non-existent except for those imposed by outside forces, i. e. laws and government regulation. Like an infant, the organization requires periodic infusion of milk (cash) and the constant tending of its creator. The period of infancy is necessarily short. The energy level required plateaus as brand loyalty builds, suppliers stabilize, and the production problems are no longer a daily crisis: the baby begins sleeping through the night. The infant organization moves into the Go-Go stage. With the idea working, ends meeting, and sales flourishing the founder and the organization become arrogant. The struggle to survive fades to the back of the mind and every opportunity becomes a priority: after all, if one dream came true, why not other dreams as well? The toddler shoves every opportunity into its mouth, without regard for nutritional value. Whereas in the infancy stage there was no hierarchy, the Go-Go stage begins development of a structure. At the beginning of the stage, the responsibilities are shared and many tasks overlap: the organization is organized around the people not the tasks. The CEO risks falling into the Founders Trap: failing to realize the organization has moved beyond a one-man show, that decentralization and delegation have become imperative. The signs of imminent crisis, the arrogance, uncontrolled growth, lack of structure and centralized decision making, are obfuscated by soaring sales, overconfidence from success, and the residual stubbornness of an entrepreneur fighting for his dream. When the crisis hits, the company falters and a second birth occurs. The Second Birth and Coming of Age Phase begins with Adolescence: an awkward period that is more painful and prolonged than infancy. Like a teenager trying to establish independence from his family, the adolescent organization’s characteristic behaviors include conflict and inconsistency. In delegating, the founder must content himself with offering advice instead of taking control: he must allow his organizational child to make mistakes in order to learn from them. Gradually, the organization establishes its sovereignty, with the occasional clash with ‘old management’. This can precipitate a divorce, especially if the founder decides that the organization's goals have become incompatible with his own. The adolescent organization experiences a shift from merely generating more sales, to generating better sales with less overhead and more profit. When the overall structure of the administration stabilizes and leadership roles become institutionalized, the organization moves to the next stage of development: Prime. Prime is the optimum point on the life cycle curve, combining the vision and aggressiveness of a Go-Go with the structure solidified in Adolescence to back it up. This is not to say that a company in its prime has stopped growing, but that growth has become planned and controlled. The challenge of Prime is to continue the momentum, and not become complacent and ride the inertial growth from previous stages. If a Prime organization does not refuel this momentum, organizational vitality will level off, and will enter the stage called Stable, the end of growth and the beginning of decline. The Stable stage is first in the Aging Phase in the organizational life cycle. The organization slowly loses flexibility; the persistent sense of urgency departs and is replaced with a feeling of security in the relatively stable market share acquired over the years. Several changes slip in: the developmental spending budget grows while the product and market research budgets decline, management training is substituted for management development, and there is a power shift to the finance department from engineering, marketing, or research and development. Despite these changes, there is markedly less conflict in the Stable stage. There are no major transitional events in the Aging phase as there were in the Growing phase. Instead, there is a slow process of deterioration. As the organization draws back from personalized attention to each client, it slides into Aristocracy. The organization is often cash rich, leading organizational members to misclassify themselves as in the prime stage. â€Å"Don’t make waves† becomes the company motto, and uniformity of thought, dress, and address becomes the norm. While Bob and Mary may be on a first name basis outside of the office, or behind closed doors, during meetings it is inevitably Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones. Another notable communication change is that focus is placed on how something was said, rather than what is said. Because of the organizational taboo against sparking conflict, consultants are brought in to give voice to the deadly trend of expecting external forces to increase market share without the executives having to admit anything. The consultant reports are often read, but ignored until the advent of Early Bureaucracy. With revenues and profits plummeting and a high turnover of good people, the Early Bureaucracy witch hunt begins. Internal conflict, back stabbing and paranoia obliterate any remaining customer focus. The organization focuses on who caused a problem rather than on what to do about it. The remaining creative individuals jump ship or are fired as though they were the source of the problems. The organization has two options remaining: Bureaucracy or Death. If a company is subsidized or nationalized, it has attached itself to life support: autonomic (administrative) functions are kept moving, but the vital spark from the infancy stage has been extinguished. The organization has become a Bureaucracy; its only purpose is to perpetuate its existence. Eventually, through internal decision making or government reallocation of funds, the organization quietly dies. Conclusion As theories develop, they become more specific and therefore more limited in scope. Scholars examining these theories develop a form of tunnel vision, and can become stymied by unexplainable behavior outside their specialty. Van de Ven and Poole's taxonomy of change theory types helps to reacquaint researchers with the wide variety of possibilities. Further research on the meta-analysis of change theories is indicated. References Adizes, Ichak. (1988). Corporate Lifecycles: How and Why Corporations Grow and Die and What to do About It. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey. Armenakis, Achilles and Bedeian, Arthur. (1999). Organizational Change: A Review of Theory and Research in the 1990s. Journal of Management. 25. 293 – 315. Bartlett, Alton and Kayser, Thomas. (1973). Changing Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey Lewin, Kurt. (1947). Frontiers in Group Dynamics. Human Relations. 1. 5-41. Prochaska, James, DiClement, Carlo, and Norcross, John. In Search of How People Change: Applications to Addicitive Behaviors. American Psychologist. 47. 1102 – 1114. Romanelli, Elaine. (1991). The Evolution of New Organizational Forms. Annual Review of Sociology. 17. 79-103. Retrieved November 29, 2006 from JSTOR. http://links. jstor. org/ sici? sici=0360-0572%281991%2917%3C79%3ATEONOF%E2. 0. CO%3B2-M Van de Ven, Andrew. (1995). Explaining Development and Change in Organizations. Academy of Management Review. 20. 510-540.

Comparing Conflict Theory and Social Control Theory Essay

A major purpose of this paper is to discuss conflict theory and social control theory from many phases. Sociological imagination originated in 1950 beginning with C. Wright Mills, an American sociologist. The concept of sociological imagination refers to how many factors there are in sociology that shape and mold the connections between what indirectly associates personal levels to simple aspects of life for people. In this paper I will discuss the implications of how personal issues are parallel to social problems in which people try to associate as a link to society. However, in exploring the basis of sociological imagination there are distinctions made between the two. For instance, teenage pregnancy is an issue suggested by Mills that teen mothers must realize that teen pregnancy is not an isolated problem. Teenage pregnancy is a vastly growing issue that young girls face in every community. Instead of being overridden with feelings of guilt and shame, the theory of sociological imagination suggests that teen pregnant girls should blame parents, peers, lack of information in school, or other societal influences that led to the current dilemma. In this paper I will discuss how the relationships, values, commitments, and beliefs are encouraging factors for people to avoid crime or break laws set forth by government. If people would internalize moral values and take pride in the community, the desire to commit deviant acts will be obsolete. Understanding the reduction of crime is a concept of social control theory. A focus of discussion in this paper is comparing conflict and social control theories and the motivational issues stating that individuals choose to participate in a variety of activities that led to criminal behavior. A derivative view of human nature states that choice constraints exist through implicit social agreements, arrangements, or contracts among individuals. Morality derives from social order, consequences that come from choices, and defining actions as illegal and lacking in morality. Discussion Basis of conflict theory is the viewpoint that the causes of crime are social and financial forces operating in society. The focus of conflict in communities is keeping with general evolutionary considerations without being genetically identifiable, all organisms display conflicts of interests. Arguments exist stating that criminal law is thought to operate in favor of rich and powerful people with policies in place to control the poor. The foundation basis of the criminal justice society is to impose moral standards in communities. The main focus is the separation of powerful individuals from those less fortunate who steal and protect themselves from attacks. During this process, ignoring the rights of poor people becomes prevalent. Middle-class individuals show favoritism to the upper-class rather than the poor, thinking that this type of mentality will aid in their rise to the top by supporting the upper echelon. Drug crimes and minor monetary crimes are severely punishable by law , large business, and financial crimes are lenient in punishment. As an example, a person stealing a television will receive a longer sentence than a person who embezzles millions of dollars through illegal business transactions. Conflict theory variations since 1960 include radical feminism, left realism, and peacemaking criminology. Radical feminism is women under capitalism. Dominant male figures are normal occurrences in society, woman are subject to this dominance in the home and work environment, and in society. Radical feminist criminologists have researched the unfair treatment of female teenagers. Studies show that female teenagers are likely to be in an institution for violations such as running away from their home, and are more prone to be sexually active. In the work environment women must be on guard for sexual attacks from men and negative comments in relation to promotional incentives. Left realism is a response to the movement of crime victims. Criminologists realize that most victims are not rich but poor. Predatory crimes are attacks on family and neighborhoods. The bottom line is left realists have the revelation that the criminal justice system acts to halt victimization without consideration of the classification of its perpetrators. Also focusing on deviant behaviors of the rich and successful must be thorough because business and financial crimes remain important. Peacemaking criminology investigates international concerns such as genocide and war. International issues for  the rights of humans and universal justice are subjects of major concern. The theory of social control deals with issues promoting social order and conformity. Many factors determine if a person will or will not engage in criminal or deviant behavior. Sociologists research various reasons for conformity and nonconformity to social norms. Social control theory studies how the issuance of rules in society is to maintain a standard of order. The th eory of social control suggests that social stability relies on the expectations that people relate to one another regarding decency and morality. Regulatory standards of human behavior in society are the foundation of social control theory. Identifying methods that can prevent deviant behaviors or deter individuals from law breaking activities are the main focus of the social control theory. The theory generalizes on two important areas: formal and informal control systems. Both formal and informal systems build on norms set forth by popularity in society. The difference is formal control systems are structuring tools of the legal system and informal control systems start within families, friends, and customs. In correspondence to criminal behaviors Ivan Nye developed four areas of control in society: 1. Direct – dictates rewarding for good behavior and punishment is administered for defiant behavior. 2. Internal – drives individuals by their conscience 3. Indirect – drives individuals by the innate desire to please others closest to him or her 4. Needs satisfaction – unnecessary criminal behavior when needs are met Social control maintains when the needs of the individual is met. When an individual’s needs are met he or she is less likely to commit crimes. Social control theory has a major role in understanding criminal behaviors. The view of criminal acts is behavioral techniques learned from peers that become his or her perceptions of normality in society. An individual’s constant exposure to deviant behaviors makes him or her more vulnerable to participate in the same behaviors he or she witnesses. In comparison of the conflict and social control theories both are a basis of extensive research. However, essentially the result is an individual’s behavior in society and the foundation of early childhood. In life there are choices to be made right and wrong. Socially greed often overtakes the desire to do the right thing  and wrong decisions seem inevitable. The choices that we make follow us from adolescence to adulthood. Socially correct should not mean belittling the poor, but the social correct should encourage the poor to excel. Conflict happens daily in our lives, marriages, employment, and school. Dealing with conflict in communities heals the wounds that a lack of morality and education causes. A struggle for power occurs in social classes in comparison to a balance of power. In the end one group is not victorious over the other. Conclusion Social controls that triumph in society are the effect of conflicts of interest with an undetermined outcome by reason for evolutionary theory. Evolutionary theory suggests that without genetic identity conflicts among individuals will exist. Different conflicts in relation to social controls – controlled behaviors and who gains from the controlling behavior are noted as a factor in how the behavior of individuals relates to crime and control. Some controls may benefit rich and powerful men, middle-class men, or the entire group of men, and those individuals whose behavior adapts to constraints of control. In conflict theory invisible tension exists in rich and poor members of the community. The law protects the white-collar worker and the layman is left to protect him or herself. Personal issues are socially problematic and issues that cause debate, frustration, and power are conflicting. The key to both theories discussed in the paper is to understand the behaviors of criminals. Society views criminal acts as behaviors learned from peers and exposure to crime settings. Criminal behaviors are recurring when the foundation of youth is not of a positive nature. Crime will continue impacting society until positive crime prevention programs are in place and the successful implementation of rules is followed. References Gibbs, J.P. (1989). Control: sociology’s central notion. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley. University of California Press. Krohn, M. and Massey, J. (1980). Social control and delinquent behavior: an examination of the elements of the social bond. Sociological Quarterly. 21. Sampson, R.J. and Laub J.H. (1993). Crime in the making: pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard University Press.

Compare abd contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Compare abd contrast - Essay Example ference in the way these people eat, drink, dress, hang out, meet with new and known people, and bury their known ones as well as their day-to-day activities which vary a great deal when one thinks of them in a broader context. Hence the comparison holds solid ground due to the fact that these people, both from the American nation and the Saudi Arabian territories known how distinct and different they are from each other and it is good to know one’s strengths and weaknesses beforehand. The similarities exist within their nationalism and the attitude with which both the societies echo their voices in favor of the patriotism myth. Religion is pretty intrinsic to a culture of a society and in broader sense to a country where its different people carry out their rituals and activities in accordance with the customs and traditions as dictated by their respective religions. Same is the case for the two countries under study here which are basically being compared. United States is a much more developed nation that Saudi Arabia while the latter is an oil-rich state and fundamentally more than 90% of its inhabitants are pre-dominantly Muslims. While the super power nation of the world is more or less comprised of nearly all ethnicities that are found elsewhere, where one can find blacks known as the Afro Americans, the Asians consisting of Indians and Pakistanis mainly and so on and so forth. On the whole, United States of America has a lot of diversity has far as its single basic culture identification is concerned and hence the people obviously practice different religions in accordance with their beliefs and con victions. This paper discusses the comparison between America and Saudi Arabia in terms of their cultural values and religious bases. If one looks at the American distribution of people who have religion apart from that of Christianity, one finds that around 2% of them are Jews, 0.5% are Muslims while similar is the ratio for Buddhists. This accounts for the

Recommendation Report on Water Provision Methods at St. Osyth Essay

Recommendation Report on Water Provision Methods at St. Osyth - Essay Example Alternative ways of providing water t-o people living in this area is necessary so as to eliminate problems associated with water scarcity such as starvation and dehydration. This report is a recommendation of the best ways to provide water in these arid areas for the people around there (Funamizu et al, 2008; p. 15). The participants in this investigation were drawn from different t sectors in order to understand how the geographical limits would be combated in order to deliver effective provision of water. Background information St. Osyth in the coastal strip of East Anglia in Britain was identified as one of the areas that require recommendations of efficient water supply. Off0icially, it is the driest area in Britain with an annual rainfall of 20.20 in (513mm). As such, two ways of water provisions were selected for analysis and comparison in order to identify if whether both can be alternatively applied or if only one can be adopted for success of solving water shortage and cris is that often characterized these regions. These investigation and its consequent recommendations follow a long list of studies that have been done in identifying the problems associated with water supply and sanitation and that also face the OECD countries. However, several problems have been identified with regard to water supply and sanitation in general. The major problem has always been the balance of cost and sustainability with regard to water supply infrastructure.... Water provision typology Decentralized versus Centralized infrastructure Decentralized water provision infrastructure describes a local source of water and is also treated locally. At St. Osyth, wells can be dug in large scale in order to provide water at the local levels for use. The area administration should take it upon itself to commission a couple of large wells that have the potentials of producing enough water that can sustain the demand. The harvest of grey water which describes the recycling of non-industrial waste water, majorly a product of the domestic usage can be put into good use. The water is harvest treated and stored to feed the demand when the levels of water in the wells go down. According to USEPA, this non-industrial water is undrinkable but can fit efficiently in flushing of toilets, farm irrigation and other necessary purposes apart from drinking. Decentralized water infrastructure also includes the reclamation of water. Reclaimed water refers to originally w aste water but which been subjected to different levels of treatment in order to remove certain water impurities and solid waste. This water can be used for fire suppression, dust control and most importantly irrigation. When highly advanced treatment methods are applied, the reclaimed water can be used for more potable use such discharging the water into another water body before being utilized in other potable systems (Dolnicar and Schafer, 2009; p. 83). Centralized Fresh water Rain and storm water, reclaimed and grey water may be described under decentralized infrastructure but can also be identified as a singly different way of providing water at St.Osyth. However, in this case the most

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Argument - Essay Example Virtue ethics states that we should be good for the sake of being good which could sometimes be impractical in modern world because others would tend to take advantage if we are too good all the time. Utilitarianism will balance it because utilitarian ethics seeks to practice ethics only when it is beneficial. Utilitarianism left on its own is also not good because it could lead to selfishness as it only concerns with itself. Being good and finding its good use will surely make a good pair of ethics. Moreover when we add deontological ethics to utilitarianism and virtue ethics we would become duty bound to follow sound ethical guidelines in our lives. Deontological ethics states that we should determine our duties and obligations and follow them. If we are able to create a set of ethics that is a combination of utilitarianism and virtue ethics, that is, good ethics that is grounded on reality, and make it a set of rules in this world, then there is a good chance that we will be following a set of ethical guidelines that is grounded on the reality of the

Analytical report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Analytical report - Assignment Example Therefore, mobile telephony technology can be adopted by an agricultural organization due to the various reasons from the analysis be discussed below. The paper will seek to analyze mobile telephony technology in the agricultural sector. Mobile telephony in the agricultural sector can be defined as a process through which farming information services is provided to farmers. This information is provided to farmers who have access to mobile phones. Relevant information provided to farmers include: weather forecasts, product market prices, farming techniques and farming information in general (Rouvinen, 2006). In the process of analyzing agricultural mobile telephony, it is important to know: its advantages, disadvantages, impacts and usage. To begin, Agricultural mobile telephony services is a very easy tool to use and has greatly transformed the operation between producers and consumers globally. In order for a farmer to use this technology, a mobile phone is needed. The mobile phone must first of all be connected to a terrestrial network to enable communication. Moreover, internet accessibility by these phones usually plays a vital in providing additional information. To start using the service, one is required to s ubscribe to the agricultural service on their mobile phones. For example, a farmer can send the word ‘agriculture’ to a number like 211 in order to gain access to the variety of services provided. The farmers can then go ahead and choose their area of specialty. Since agriculture accounts for a large employment population in the rural sector, an agricultural company can effectively use this technology to address various issues that faces the rural agricultural sector such as poor farming methods. The company can benefit from this technology economically in form of investments because of the various advantages that comes with it. For example, the use

Critical Introduction to Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Critical Introduction to Law - Essay Example Basically feminism concerns the study or movement against women’s subordination common to all of them in a particular society. And it is culturally and historically specific. Thus forms of oppression of women are different among societies, races and countries. The subordination of Afro-Caribbean women, Asian women, working class women, lesbian women, single mothers are qualitatively different but unified by gender. For example, reluctance of the police to intervene in Asian women’s protest against domestic violence in their community. Police justify their reluctance citing the value of extended family system in Asian communities and letting them settle their disputes on their own. This is not only sexist but also racist bias. White State power has also been indifferent to the voices of these Asian women. 2 Women have been excluded in market place and government and given the main responsibility of bearing and rearing children and to give refuge to men from the pressures of capitalist world. This separation of women from the public sphere was more acute in the nineteenth century. At the same time, men are dominating both the public and private spheres even today by legal orders with private sphere devoid of legal control making them even more dominant in private life. In America, females were excluded for exercising franchise in the 19th century. In 1820s and 1830s, white males got franc hise rights even without property holdings. And after the civil rights movement when black men gained the franchise rights, women regardless of race, were left behind. It was only through the 13th amendment, women gained the right to vote. It did not mean women finally got the rights and duties befitting electoral status. It was only in 1961, they were accorded jury duty. The armed combat duty as a test of citizenship has still not been accorded to women today. In English common law, women were not allowed to enter certain professions like law

Fuel cells Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fuel cells - Essay Example This is then used to run a turbine to produce electricity. Thus there are many intermediate steps each with certain efficiency (always less than 100%) associated with each of them. This is because thermal energy is the worst form of energy with maximum entropy and therefore can never be converted fully into useful work. Now the overall efficiency of chemical potential energy to electricity conversion is a product of efficiency of each of the intermediate steps and therefore is much smaller. The best thermal power plants operate at maximum conversion efficiency of about 40%. Also, the combustion products are highly polluting adding to carbon emission and global warming. Fuel cells on the other hand convert the chemical potential energy directly into electricity and thus have very high conversion efficiency which is typically 70%. Besides, the reaction products are relatively harmless and in many cases completely harmless. Thus fuel cells are being seen as power plants of future and a tangible potential solution for containing the menace of carbon emission and therefore, global warming. These are already into many specialized and high end applications. In this report the basic principle, related developments and current and potential applications of fuel cells are briefly discussed. A fuel cell is like a galvanic cell. It directly converts chemical energy into electricity and is highly efficient. It is now possible to make such cells in which reactants are fed continuously to the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the electrolyte compartment. Galvanic cells that are designed to convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells. Such a fuel cell was used for providing electrical power in the Apollo space program. The water vapors produced during the reaction were

How can a healthy balance of occupations be defined Dissertation

How can a healthy balance of occupations be defined - Dissertation Example The following proposal will provide a background and rationale for the intended research. The problem will be discussed so that the intended research can be understood for its purpose. The second section of the proposal will provide aims and objectives for the intended research Finally, the third part of the proposal will provide an intended methodology from which the study will be conducted in order to provide some resolutions for the objectives. The overall proposal is intended to provide a framework for the intended dissertation on the topic of defining balance through healthy occupations. Background Occupational choices are defined by Turner, Foster, and Johnson as either a â€Å"deliberate commitment to enter an occupational role, acquire a new habit, or undertake a personal project† (27). They further the discussion about the definition of an occupational role through disclosure that these roles are not always defined by an active choice, but are sometimes imposed upon a n individual. An example of this can be the role of head of the family. Occupations are most often seen as long term endeavors which are separate from the concept of an activity which is more often seen in a short term devotion to a task or purpose (Sumsion). Occupations are concerned with long term concepts that require diligence and effort towards goals which may be finite, but are more often sets of goals that continue forward through the occupational effort (Edmons). Creating a healthy balance of occupations concerns balancing the different elements of the roles that a person undertakes in order to assure that in pursuing these roles, a balance is essential in sustaining health and preventing illness. The World Health Organization or WHO suggests that in order to define well being one must look at â€Å"the total universe of human life domains including physical, mental, and social aspects† (Wilcock 310). In order to achieve harmony and balance, all aspects of human exper ience must be examined and assessed in order to provide the clarity that supports well-being (Lundy and Janes 546). A very important distinction that must be made during the study of balance of occupations is that between health and wellness. Health is defined by activities that lead toward well-being. While the terms can be overlapped, more often health is considered a state of physical being that is a part of the balance of a â€Å"dynamic integration of mind, body, spirit, emotions, and environment† (Velde and Wittman 69). Therefore in studying the balance of healthy occupations, the state of well-being must be taken into consideration. How roles are chosen and how they affect the aspects of the five aspects of wellness are relevant to the overall balance of those roles of occupation. The following factors should be taken into consideration when discussing balancing occupations: a concern with a person as a physical, thinking, emotional, spiritual, and social being who has a past, present and future, and who functions within physical and social environments; a belief in intrinsic motivation - an innate predisposition to explore and act on the environment and to use one’s capacities; a recognition of each person’

Banking regulation and risk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Banking regulation and risk - Essay Example The gravity of the problem is underscored by the length and the damage wrought by the slump, which some economists called as a recession and financial shock. In the effort of prevention, it is crucial to identify the causes of the financial crisis. Understanding the Slump Technically, it was the collapse of the American subprime lending market that has caused the crisis. But from its manifestation in the year 2007 towards its end in the latter part of 2009, the crisis proved to be an amalgamation of problems that facilitated and aggravated the crisis sparked by the subprime lending market crash. The consensus is that global macro-economic imbalances and financial innovation, which aggravated the excessive credit and liquidity expansion, combined with the failures in regulation, supervision and corporate governance collectively led to the financial crisis that has acquired global proportions. (UK Parliament, p. 7) The specifics of the causes of the financial crisis reveal a multi-face ted financial problem that, unfortunately, all boiled down to the matter of faulty and ineffective financial policymaking, regulation and supervision. For instance, central banks erred in keeping inflation in historic lows because it led to the ease by which credits were made available. Then financial institutions, in their greed to achieve higher returns, took more and more risks by introducing increasingly complex financial products which eventual taxed the long-term stability of financial institutions. September 2008 saw the peak of the crisis as ten large financial institutions failed or nearly failed, triggering a financial panic and resulted in the large contraction of the global economy. (Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission 2011, p. 417) In the early part of 2011, much of the world are still reeling from the financial crunch either recovering, rebuilding or are still in its clutches . The United States is still currently struggling, barely posting positive growth. The legacy of the 2008 financial crisis is undeniable, the current global financial system - its risk-based regulatory framework lacks a kind of efficiency and authority to check each and every element of the financial crisis as we watch them happen helplessly. This should already prompt us to questions existing frameworks and conventions such as the Basel II and the existing risk-based regulatory framework that govern the world financial systems. The Problem with Basel II The second installment to the Basel Accords, Basel II is a compendium of recommendations on banking laws and regulations drafted and implemented by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. Basel II is supposed to be a mechanism that would prevent crisis such as what was experienced in 2008 from happening. The idea is to setup an international standard or best practices benchmarks that financial regulators could use in their policy- and decision-making. The standard is anchored on the establishment of risk and capital mana gement requirements that would supposedly force banks to maintain capital reserves according to the risks that a financial institution is exposed to as a result of its banking practices. The problem, wrote Padmalatha (2011), is that Basel II is a quantum leap from Basel I and that those tasked to implement and promote its standards were not ready and skilled, making Basel II problematic for regulators and banks themselves. An important argument is the Basel Committees own admission that risk based capital requirements - a fundamental element of Basel II - could inevitably lead to procyclicality, typified by how banks lend more due to an upbeat economy. Padmalatha stressed that "when business cycles take a downturn, banks downgrade the borrowers due to increased likelihood

Boston Chicken Case Essay Example for Free

Boston Chicken Case Essay Boston Chicken implemented a franchising strategy that differed from most other franchising companies at the time. Boston Chicken focused its expansion through franchising the company through large regional developers rather than selling store franchises to a large number of small franchisees. In that, an established network of 22 regional franchises that targeted their operations in the 60 largest U.S. metropolitan markets and in order to do so, the franchisee would have been an independent experienced businessman with vast financial resources and would be responsible for opening 50 – 100 stored in the region. Boston Chicken focused on widespread continuous expansion of its operations to become to developed across the board food chain. Scouting for real estate assured the highest standards for developing properties and was critical to the company’s future success. To assist in future growth of the franchises, Boston Chicken implemented a communications infrastructure, which provided a supporting link for communication between its networks of stores. In addition in efforts to improve operating efficiency, the company locked in low rates from its suppliers and developed flagship stores, which did most of the initial food preparation which inadvertently reduced employee training costs. Many of these regional developers were given a revolving credit line to help support expansion. This type of financing came with credit risk while the franchises average revenue from operations were not sufficient enough to cover the expenses which raises doubt for the repayment of such loans. 2. The accounting policy of reporting the franchise fees from Boston Chicken’s area developers as revenue seemed most controversial. These franchise fees, which accounted for more than 50% of total revenue, did not represent revenues from operations. Also, the source of most of the ranchise fees came from the financing provided by Boston Chicken, the franchiser, where the money coming in was the same money that was going out. This overstated earnings of the company. Since the debentures can be converted into shares of common stock, most of the revenue from franchise fees should have been deferred. Reporting revenues that included these franchise fees his the fact the most of the franchised stores were operating at a loss, which provided a false impression to investors. While Boston Chicken, the franchiser reported a net income from operations of $24,611 in 1994, if they excluded the income provided by franchise fees, they company-operated stores would have been operating at a loss, which would have been a more accurate picture for the company’s operations and its question of having a profitable future. 3. Boston Chicken, the franchiser, reports revenue based on franchise fees (includes royalties, initial franchise development costs, interest income from area developer financing, lease income, software fees, and other related franchise fees), and company operated stores. The revenue reported on the income statement does not reflect the operating income or losses generated by the area developers, with most of these area developers operating at a loss. Since the franchiser provides financing to the area developers, it seems that consolidation of the financial statements would provide vital information to the users of the financial statements especially since the repayment of loans relies heavily on the profitability of the franchisees. Basically, Boston Chicken was not reporting the results of operations from its area developers because Boston Chicken did not have an equity position in these firms; rather their stake in these franchises was reported as debt financing. In doing so, Boston Chicken did not have to report the losses that were incurred in these operations. By manipulating the financial statements, the company gave a false impression on its future prospects of the company, allowing them to more freely raise capital through the issuance of common stock, and inadvertently inflating tock prices.

Understanding Your Personal Worldview

Understanding Your Personal Worldview Understanding your personal worldview is important because this is how we assess all aspects of life the world around us and our place in it. The Christian worldview the laws of logic are universal and unchanging because they reflect the nature of the living God. How do people define the terms God, Ethics, and Knowledge? How do the terms affect the daily lives of others? I have found during my worldview search, that these three components play a huge role in how I shape my thoughts experiences, education, and life decisions. My beliefs about the existence and the character of God (Theology), the nature of Knowledge (Epistemology), and discussing the main question is truth relative? In addition I have discussed my beliefs about Ethics (Morality) and who is right and wrong? Who defines right and wrong? Are the moral laws the same for all people in all cultures? It is difficult for the natural man to believe in something he cannot see, touch, or feel (1Cor.2:14).The question for the Christian is solved with the first verse in the Bible. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth (Gen.1:1) the greatest proof in addition to scripture is our daily fellowship in prayer, Gods revelations and our personal experiences. (Psalms 19:1) states The Heavens declare the Glory of God and the firmament shows His handy work. This passage is clearly saying there is no excuse for man not to believe in God, for the beauty and the glory of the Heavens speak loudly saying God exists. Knowledge is possible because of how God has made us. We learn from our senses our experiences, but all true knowledge is ultimately dependent upon God. (Proverbs1:7).The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge: but fools despise wisdom an instruction. Ethics, or that which is good, is a reflection of the character of God. God is the standard of good by which all things are measured, and his standards are revealed through his word. Moral laws are pretty much the same in all cultures, but their moral reasoning can be different depending on the specific culture. But seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things shall be added to you.(Matthew 6:33). The only real ethic is to glorify God by having faith in him and giving his kingdom priority in our lives. God has given us his revelation and to guide us in ethics, in knowing what we should and should not do. The book of Proverbs was given to us to teach us the right conduct. To know wisdom and instruction; to perceive the words of understanding, to receive the instruction of wisdom, justice and judgment, and equity: to give subtlety to the simple, to the young man knowledge and discretion. A wise man will hear, and will increase learning; and a man of understanding shall attain unto wise counsels. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge: but fools despise wisdom and instruction. Clearly the Bible teaches that truth is absolute and that it exists under the authority and revelation of Jesus Christ. Religion describes our connection to God as the one thing that exists. From this foundation we see the clear connection of how our worldviews are formed. Understanding ones personal and Christian worldviews are important, because they are determining factor of our moral code and ethics, and other beliefs. These worldviews give us a general picture of all reality, which we relate our experiences and knowledge. It helps us to put our daily experiences and choices into clearer prospective. (Cosgrove, p. 28) As a Christian my worldviews are important for my on salvation, for the well-being of my family, for the betterment of my community and workplace. A Christian worldview is powered by knowing the Spirit that lives inside of us is greater than the spirit who lives in the world. I can do no less than to love the Lord thy God with all my heart and soul. The same came for a witness, to bear witness of the light that all men through Him might believe.(1 John 7) Conclusion In conclusion the personal world view is a substantial part of how we relate to life, world events, each other, and helps us determine our part in this introspective living experience. The Christian Worldview and how it supports Christianity, which is necessary in building a relationship with the Living God. People across the world have their individual personal views relating to God, ethics, and knowledge and strive to perfect their religion, which is necessary in building a relationship with the creator.

How Coca Cola Selects and Compensates Expatriates

How Coca Cola Selects and Compensates Expatriates Abstract International human resource management has become one of the most controversial issues in the world today, and as a result of the complexity of international management it is essential to have the right person at the right position. The aim of this paper is to identify how Coca Cola Select Compensate its expatriates. Start from brief idea about the Coca Cola background, Selection process, Factors influencing the Expatriates selection, Role of expatriates, Training and development, and compensation.when looking at selection process it was found that Coca Cola considers the technical ability and previous performance are selection central. This paper also discusses the previous and recent approaches Coca Cola for international compensation. Introduction Country boundaries no longer exist when it comes to international trade (Ashamalla 1993).In such a active Global competition, international experience has become a requirement rather than an option and forced many business to recognize that they must consider management from a different perspective. IHRM is an important component of firms global strategy and is often recognized as an influencing factor of success or failure of international business (Deresky, 2003). Phatak, Bhagat and Kashlak (2005) state that IHRM involves developing human resource capabilities to meet the diverse needs of multinational and global corporations. Ensuring high-quality management is critical due to the complexity of managing international operations (Deresky, 2003). Furthermore, in the competitive global economy, human resources are not as easy to duplicate as factors of production, and can therefore provide the source of competitive advantage (Phatak et al., 2005). When looking at global assignments Black et al. (1999) have presented five basic dimensions of people management: recruit/select; train; appraise; reward and; develop. These dimensions build upon one another and develop into a management process (ibid). First, when it comes to recruiting and selecting, managers need to identify, recruit and appropriately position individuals within the organization. Phatak et al. (2005) suggest that it is a key process when corporations wish to bring new employees into their networks. Deresky (2003) indicates the importance of having the right people at the right place and at the right time by describing it as a key factor of success in international operations. Company background The Coca Cola Company is the worlds largest beverage company. It is no.1 brand according to fortune 2009 survey. The company operates a franchised distribution system dating from 1889. The Coca Cola Company is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. Its major markets consist of USA, Brittan, Europe, Middle East, Asia, Russia and North America. It has activities in 200 countries, about 3000 branches, and 55,000 employees across the world. Over 200 expatriates are assigned for international positions every year, as region managers. Most of the expatriates are sent from USA and Britain, and most often sent to Middle East, Asia and Russia. Expatriates Selection process Expatriate selection process starts when they need to fill abroad position due to lack of local talent and/or management experience working in a multinational.Selection process is not defined with rules at Coca Cola. Every international assignment requires different criteria. Usually, familiarity within the exact area of international assignments is recommended but not for all times a prerequisite. Moreover, Coca Cola has lately changed their way when selecting expatriates. It used to concern of sending executives as expatriates, while at the present it has the concern of sending high potentials younger employee. Coca Cola usually considered the recommendation and suggestions of candidates expatriates. Significant sides of the candidate improve his chance to be selected, and can also raise the issues for instance, losing some employee within the department or whether it can give advantage in the future. Coca Cola does not focus on developing repatriation training programs for the expatriates. However, the expatriates informed that at the end of assignment they will return home and they will have their job back, which gives expatriates secure feeling once they leave the international assignment Factors influencing the Expatriates selection (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) shows some of the issues HR managers will take into consideration when selecting expatriates for international assignments. Source: Dowling Welch 2004 Coca Cola look at several vital criteria when selecting candidates for international assignments. Expatriates should aware of Coca Colas values, additionally the ability to deliver their knowledge and expertise, and gather further knowledge as they are overseas. Expatriates are employee where Coca Cola have faiths in them, and believed to be exceptional performer within the company. In general, selected expatriates are employees who hit the expectations when dealing with everyday difficulties and critical jobs. Besides they are motivated employee with a capability to figure things from a strategic standpoint. Expatriates required some abilities such as, technical and managerial skills, in order to complete the requested task when selected for international assignments The technical ability consider a significant factor when selecting expatriate candidates according to (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). (Harris and Brewster 1999) confirm that technical skill of expatriates is a vital criterion to be taken into consideration and in real assignment consider significant. The evaluation of expatriates candidates technical ability is based on previous job performance, On the other hand, past performance in some cases does not play major role when work out with particular difficulties in a new host country new culture and environment (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). At Coca Cola the technical ability has significant weight when decide who to select for international assignment. However, expatriates with extensive international knowledge are sent to achieve more specific knowledge and expertise, whereas expatriates with general expertise are sent to achieve more international knowledge. According to (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) cross-cultural suitability is important attribute and has to be considered when assessing expatriates candidates as they will work in different or unfamiliar environments. The cross cultural suitability of expatriate candidates is evaluated at Coca Cola but not measured as a significant selection factor. (Ashamalla 1993) highlights the cultural understanding, and the importance for expatriates to value and respect diverse characteristic and features of other cultures. Moreover, (Hutchings 2002) emphasize the importance to tolerate the differences in race, beliefs and cultures, including the norms and values.(Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) state that it is hard to assess the cultural suitability because it is difficult to determine exactly what the aspects that should be comprised. Listen Read phonetically (Avril and Magnini 2007) agrees that family has strong influence on the expatriates success in international assignment. However a few global organization focus on the family aspect and not to consider family as disadvantage aspect when selecting expatriates candidates (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). As a result of incapability to integrate into a new culture, families can experience feeling of loneliness. Furthermore, Coca Cola does not consider the as disadvantage part when assessing expatriate candidates. Once the decision made then they consider the family for any further training or advice. The partners job, kids disruption in education and the looking after old parents are issues of family pressure (Johnsson and Lennbro 2008). Country and cultural requirements is considered when selecting expatriates for international assignments at Coca Cola. First of all, the host government may stop expatriate for many reasons, such as visa issues, no available candidates can fill the position from the host country, and legislations (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004).Moreover, some international assignments at rural area or war-zone mean hard living conditions (Johnsson and Lennbro 2008). (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) highlight the language skills of expatriates and assert to be measured as an additional factor when selecting expatriate. According to (Avril and Magnini 2007) expatriates who have language skills will be more effective, gain the respect and trust of their colleagues, and more easily establish partnerships and solid working relationships with local nationals that will, in turn, generate good will for the organization and positively impact the bottom line. (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) find out that the consequences of language skills changes according to the type of assignment. Characters and skills of the expatriate are important aspect to consider. Coca Cola states that some of the preferred attributes are personal liability, enthusiasm to build up his experience and develop the organization, ability to be criticized, and be self-confident. The interpersonal talents of expatriate are not a spoken criterion, but if the expatriate do not have the ability to work with people, then they will not be chosen. Finally, Coca Cola highlighted the individuals motivation. The people who select expatriates review their explanations to select them for international assignment, and as staffs apply for international assignment, take into consideration that they are to some extent motivated. Expatriates Roles According to (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) , there are many reason for transferring employees for international assignments as expatriates linked to the intended purpose of the expatriate. Roles of expatriates are listed as the following Source: Dowling Welch 2004 The Figure provides a general idea of the expatriates roles, and how these roles shape by home and host country. First of all, Coca Cola using expatriates as agents of direct control, where expatriates roles are to make sure subsidiary commitment through direct administration and management (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). Moreover, expatriates also used to manage personal and cultural matters in the host country as stated by (Harzing 2001). Knowledge can be shared cross international assignments. as a result, Coca Cola use overseas agents of socialization, which is likely helps the integration of corporate values and beliefs (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). It is a means of informal and non-direct control.(Harzing 2001) label the expatriates as bumblebees since expatriates help in the transfer of a common culture of companies. This formulates and creates more decentralized organization. In addition, Coca Cola can use expatriates as agents to build and enhance the network between the host and home branches (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). Internationally, strengthen the links between individuals is significance way of implementation of informal control. It is also a way to transfer ideas and efficiency. According to (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004), one of the expatriates role is to increase the organization borders . Expatriates would have an exceptional ability to gather information on the market, and enhance the representation of the company in the host country. (Collings, Scullion et al. 2007) state that there is more than one reason of using expatriates for international assignments. First, if there are no appropriate managers available at the host country for a specific project or function, then the employment of expatriates could be used to guarantee the desired value of work. In addition, using of expatriates gives the chance for managerial development. (Collings, Scullion et al. 2007) indicates expatriates will build and developed their competences throughout the international assignment and motivate the organization for using expatriates and help achieving the organizational development. International Training Development Source: Dowling Welch 2004 International training and development is another aspect of IHRM. Training intends to develop employee skills and behavior, whereas development objective is to increase abilities in relation to some potential position, generally a managerial skills (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004). According to (Shen 2005) expatriates need a set of context-specific abilities, for instance industry-specific knowledge, and a central part of certain skills, such as cultural sensitivity, ability to handle responsibility, ability to develop subordinates and ability to exhibit and demonstrate. These skills are measured as vital international competencies at Coca Cola and all can be developed through effective international training and management development. Moreover, pre-departure training will help expatriate success more than failure (Katz and Seifer 1996). Coca Cola focus on human resources development by concentrated on the education and training of its employees as an important part of their development. Coca Cola allegedly spent millions every year for training its employees. On the other hand, Coca Cola undertook a cost cutting drive, and started looking for methods to train its staff effectively at lower Costs. After significant investigation and researches, Coca Cola In 2007, launched Coca Cola University (CCU) a virtual, global university for all learning and capability-building activities across the Company. E-Learning was used to train Coca Cola newly recruited managers and expatriates. Four types of training for international assignments (Baumgarten 1995). pre-departure training for expatriates: Once expatriates selected for international assignment, they will receive language training and an orientation to the host country culture. Family will be included in orientation training sessions. These training sessions will provide expatriates and their family with information related housing, schools, shopping, and health care facilities in the host country. During the training expatriates will have full discussion with the organisation about how the international assignment would fit into their profession strategy and what future position they would have when return to home country. Listen Read phonetically On-site training for expatriates: At the host country the expatriate will receive additional onsite training to familiarize the expatriate with the local working procedures and work environment. These formal programs will deliver orientation about the host country customs and cultures. Repatriation: Expatriates and their family will adapt the host country norms and culture especially in long-term assignment. Usually they will experience high level of stress and cultural shock when return to the home country as a result of changes that have taken place since their leaving. Expatriates have to assume what ability they want to build up and the sort of jobs that might be offered in the home country with those new skills. As the expatriate a broad, many changes at the home country company could happen such as colleagues or managers may leave. Therefore expatriates should maintain contact with company. Otherwise expatriates will have re-entry shock because of new employees, a new passion, and a new culture that may have changes. Training for (HCNs) and (TCNs): To ensure the understanding of corporate strategy and culture, training will be provided to HCNs and TCNs. All employees from team leaders upwards are given an annual skills assessment and development plan. The Company also inÂÂ ­vests in formal training. During 2008, emÂÂ ­ployees received on average more than 16 hours of formal training each. An additional valuable means in expatriate pre-departure training is an initial visit to the host country. These visits often give the expatriates and their family a clearer idea about the new environment in which they will be living. Sometimes expatriate will refuse the international assignment based on the initial visit. According to (Coopers 1997) study shows that 53% of organizations which offer initial visits to their employees and spouses to the host country, of those 13% refused the international assignment. On the other hand, since the expenses and costs for an expatriate failure are so high it is valuable to know of the refusal earlier to the actual assignment Performance Management Source: Dowling Welch 2004 Coca Cola manages its performance management system through 4 Stages during an Annual Business Cycle and has multiple Objectives. Some of these include Objectives leading to Significant Accomplishments, Breakthrough Objectives, and Business Plan Achievement objectives. Furthermore, Coca Cola has an extensive training and development programs for the employees to focus on the day-to-day needs of the employees and to adapt new culture difficulties and differences. Competency framework encompasses thought leadership, people leadership and results leadership that Coca Cola uses to manage and assess its workforce. A point ranking scale is used to define a system in an organized systematic form to avoid ambiguity and bias when conducting performance appraisal and rating to compensate employees based on performance and competencies as identified in the appraisal process. According to (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) when expatriate agree to have the job for international assignment, they will look forward to having financial benefits from doing that assignment. Therefore organisation should take compensation packages into its consideration because it has major affects at the expatriates when making decision. Expatriates successes will have big advantage for the organisation especially in this competitive market. (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) points out two approaches to develop international compensation: Firstly, the Going Rate Approach Going Rate approach is straightforward and easy to understand which make the compensation package parallel to the host country nationals. In this approach the base salary is linked to the salary structure of the home country. It is based on local market rates. This compensation approach has some disadvantage especially when expatriates return to home country. When going rate is different in the host country, there might be some pay cut. Secondly, the Balance Sheet Approach Balance sheet approach delivers a compensation package to balance an expatriate managers purchasing power between host country and home country. In other words, since expatriate assigned to an international position by using balance sheet approach expatriates will not be affected by spending power. The negative side of the balance sheet can be its cost and unfairness between expatriate managers and local national managers, and even among expatriates who come from different countries. Components Coca Cola takes into consideration when it comes to an International Compensation: Base Salary Extra pay the expatriate receives for working outside his or her country of origin which encourage to accept foreign postings Allowances (Housing allowances, Cost-of-living allowances, Education allowances, Relocation allowances, Parent country wages everywhere ,Wean expatriates from allowances ,Pay based on local or regional markets ,Global pay systems) Tax differentials Coca Cola pays the expatriates income tax in the host country when a host country has a reciprocal tax treaty with the expatriates home country. Benefits Coca Cola ensure that their expatriates receive the same level of medical and pension benefits abroad that they received at home The new host country environment and difficult to function efficiently are core problems for the majority of expatriates (Harris and Brewster 1999) Pre-departure training is essential for improving expatriates culture knowledge and cross-culture adjustment (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004).On the other hand, many cross-culture training is not sufficient or incomplete. Since its hard to assess the efficiency of such training (Waxin, Katsioloudes et al. 2007). According to (Sims and Schraeder 2005) Healthcare is another significant aspect when it comes to compensation package. Many international organizations would have different health care insurance company between home and host country. Coca Cola rewarding system for employee is excellent to retain, motivate and influence employees towards organizational goals with their best potential utilization. Coca Cola uses Self Assessment tools for staff to assess themselves on top accomplishments in the previous year. Analysis Operating as agents of direct control is usually not the role of expatriates at Coca Cola , which is not consistent with (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) believed as they remark that expatriates are often used to control and monitor local operations. Another role of expatriates according to (Dowling, Welch et al. 2004) is agents of socialization, where expatriates are likely to share business values and beliefs so as to build some informal control.

Jungle Night :: essays research papers

Critical Analysis of Jungle Night The speaker of the poem is a civilian observer, probably a local. There is a sense of tension and fear in the speaker’s tone. The speaker uses an observatory tone in the poem, a combination between 1st and 3rd person. The author shows us that the speaker is an observer when he says "They are not there†¦/You finger the trigger of your Bren." (ll. 8&10) You can clearly see that the author creates tension when he says "Half-fearing, half-desiring the sudden hell/ Pressure will loose." (ll. 11-12) The poet has a way of building us up to a climax then letting us down, and again he gets us on the edge of our seat, only to sit back down quickly. This poem is written very literally and does not have any deep hidden meanings. The author gives us a sense of predator prey between the "Man with the green cigarette" and the "Man with the dark blue cloak." We are given a feeling that the cigarette man is hunting and stalking waiting to kill the man with the cloak. The author also uses the image of a "Man with the tiny anvil" who we see as really un-important however we fail to realize that he actual adds a great deal of suspense with the way he taps the metal. In the first stanza he "†¦Strikes it softly like a bell-Tink-tink; tink-tink." (ll. 3-4) and in the second to last stanza "Strikes-twice; Strikes-twice" (l. 21) which gives a sense that something more is yet to come. In the first stanza when the two men are first introduced, the author uses very soft words, which gives us a sense of peace and serenity. However in the second to last stanza he uses onomatopoeia again saying "Drip-drip; drip-drip"(l. 19) and "Strikes-twice; strikes-twice"(l. 21) which shows us that there is a greater sense of urgency arising and perhaps something is going to happen between these men. Through the use of the language the author is able to give us a sense of what the lone soldier with the Bren is feeling when he sees the two men walk by. The speaker gives us a very human feel when he says, "They are not there/then one of the whistles softly/you finger the trigger of your Bren (ll. 8-10), which allows us to connect with this soldier on a very real and human level.

The Paradox of Perfection :: Free Essay Writer

The Paradox of Perfection In 1980, Arlene Skolnick’s â€Å"The Paradox of Perfection† was published in Wilson Quarterly around the time when the â€Å"ideal family† was highly regarded. The article expresses the idea that the perfect family dose not exist. This essay is a prime example of how society views on what a family should be, subconsciously affects the behavior and attitude of the average family. As a psychologist from University of California, Skolnick presents her views through a series of historical contexts and statistics. Skolnick ironically exemplifies through the media that the picture perfect family is nothing more than a myth; in other words she uses the media concepts of a family as a foothold to convey her thoughts. Although the article was written more than 20 years ago, Skolnick views projects a future representation of society and how their portrayal of the â€Å"ideal family† has not change. The essay covers an array of periods; a historical view to give a background to the essay, a present view to elaborate her thoughts and a future outlook to tie it all together. Through this process, the reader is able to follow and understand the author’s views, which are refurbished by historical evidence. Skolnick stated in the beginning of her essay, â€Å"Can the family be at once a cherished â€Å"value† and a trouble institution,† (paragraph 4) as a way to establish her agreement. The statement basically means that what was once thought as the ideal family is now the main reason for typical families’ downfall. Through a variety of metaphorical strategies, Skolnick is able to support her claims; the media and other image of the perfect family is an unrealistic model that average family use as a form of comparison. The author first address a general audience with her opening statement, which states the divorce rates, births out-of-wedlock, and presents a down to earth impression that captures any reads’ attention. Even though Skolnick is psychologist, she is able to express her views in a matter that appeals to the general-mass. I am able to understand and agree with Skolnick’s arguments to a point, due to the fact that I have lived in two different cultures and therefore able to appreciate her ideals. I can see why the author believes so strongly in her arguments because it is easily seen that the American life-hood is bases on the output from the media and a collection of society’s regulations that force the average man to behave in a certain matter.

The Controversy of Abortion Essay example -- Abortion Pregnancy Medica

The Controversy of Abortion In three weeks, Jennifer will leave for college. She broke up with her boyfriend two weeks ago, and today she found out she was pregnant. Should Jennifer have an abortion, or stop all her plans and have a baby at eighteen? Either way the decision is hers to make. On January 22, 1973 the landmark decision of Roe vs. Wade occurring in the Supreme Court made abortion a "constitutional liberty" (Francome 20). Legally, Jennifer can receive an abortion. Socially, however, she will endure many more obstacles. Fighting for society's acceptance In today's American society, viewpoints on certain topics often conflict with what individuals believe is right. This is very evident in the argument for acceptance of abortions among college students. However, with the rise of the anti-abortion movement this procedure has become less accepted and harder to obtain. Should abortions among college students be more widely accepted in society? According to a Planned Parenthood study done in 1997, forty percent of seventeen year olds will become pregnant before their twenty-fifth birthday. This statistic is directly targeted at college age females. The answer is far from being strictly a black and white issue, but my own viewpoint is "yes" abortions should be accepted among society for many reasons. The controversial issue of abortion has many intertwining, surrounding complications. Such an issue is never concrete, "in America, about 20% of Americans thoroughly oppose abortions, 20% thoroughly favor abortions, while a vast majority are 'muddled in the middle'" (Pojman and Beckwith 59). As with any pregnancy there are impending risks involved and many extenuating circumstances that justify an abortion. In a perfect world, abortions are not the best way to prevent unwanted pregnancies, but there are many "bumps in the road," keeping the United States from being perfect. Defining Life? The main question facing society is the definition of a fetus' point of living. Pro-Lifers believe that, "a fertilized embryo is the foundation for a living human being" (National College Students for Life). In contrast, pro-choicers argue that a human being is something more concrete with it's own thought processes and consciousness. Petchesky argues, "the fetus is only a potential human being, and we confuse actual with potent... ...roblem with accepting abortion is the lack of facilities that perform abortions. Only thirteen percent of abortions are performed within hospitals (Landes 64). The rest are performed outside of hospitals in clinics. The Alan Guttmacher Institute surveyed and found only 2,680 abortion clinics in the United States. Eighty-eight percent of the clinics are only in metropolitan areas where ninety-eight percent of abortions are performed (Landes 64). Rural counties that contain colleges or universities do not have such accessibility to facilities that perform abortions. The AGI discovered that eighty-three percent of rural counties did not have clinics. Limited facilities that perform clinics poses a dilemma for college students that may not have transportation or time, to travel to metropolitan areas. However, if colleges installed on-campus abortion clinics with certified doctors and psychologists, for counseling purposes, this problem could be corrected. With on-campus abortion clinics, it would show the university to be more accepting and understanding of college students need for such medical facilities, and therefore, society as a whole may be more accepting.

Purchasing Behaviours of Three Major Races in Malaysia

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT III Name: FAWWAZ AIMAN SAKARIA Student Id: 2012645664 Programme: BBA (Hons) Marketing Part: 3 Course: Understanding Consumer (MKT531) Lecturer: Mdm Sharifah Nurafizah Date: 16/11/2012 Answers There are only few differences that can be found on the three major races of Malaysia (Malays, Chinese and Indians) in terms of purchasing behaviour. Based on the household expenses, the Malays purchasing behaviour are influenced by the Islamic religions needs and regulations which concern on the ‘HALAL’ label of the product.Islam constitution plays roles in the daily life of the Muslims. In addition, the Malays are quite incompetent in handling product and market information which may result in the confusion and information overload. From the perspective as consumers, Malays shows much interest in acquiring technologically produced and high quality products, without being materialistic or conspicuous buying.Chinese is the second largest groups in Malaysia and they are viewed as the powerful economics compare to the other two groups. For the Chinese, it’s important to conduct wide information achievement to reduce the uncertainty purchases. The self-pride also play the important roles for the Chinese to decide on their products purchasing. For instance, the more expensive of the products, the more it reflects to the wealthy and level of socials of that person.Indians in Malaysia has quite similar with the Malaysians Chinese buying behaviour but they are viewed as a high degree in product value orientation. Indian consumers are also concerned with the values of natural, care and affection. These values are far more dominant that values expensive and social level purchasing style. The preference for the Indians is more to the traditional products value rather than buying the technology invented products. (253 WORDS)

Current and Future Relevance of Development Anthropology

What does happiness mean? Ask this question to different individuals and surely you will obtain varying answers. There could be related or similar answers, but no two individuals will have the identical definition of happiness, unless of course, they had a prior discussion on the matter and took time to set parameters on how they would define the term. It is just like saying that one’s definition of happiness can be as unique as one’s fingerprint. Why is this so?As human beings, each of us has his/her own purpose in life. We may have the same basic needs to keep us alive. but each of us has his/her own desires and aspirations as we go on living These are our goals in life. Up to what extent we are able to reach our goals becomes the basis of fulfillment, which in turn is the parameter of a person’s definition of happiness.There are more than 101 ways to define happiness because human beings as individual living organisms vary. Each one of us has a certain uniquen ess which sets us apart from other members of the Animal Kingdom.Similarly, development is a term which is as subjective as the word happiness. Probably because both terms involve the satisfaction of humans’ needs and wants. This is why there are numerous bases for the achievement of both. But unlike the meaning of happiness which is taken more on an individual context,   a discourse on the meaning of development is much more complex because it involves not just one human being but a community, or even a whole nation.The meaning of development depends on various paradigms. Defining it quantitatively in terms of economic growth has become inadequate which makes it even more difficult to give a concrete meaning of the word. Thus, different schools of thoughts and various disciplines have their own arguments on how to properly define the term while trying not to overlook how the term itself is being perceived by the objects or targets of the development process.The various dis courses on and practices of development have paved the way for the rise and growth of development anthropology. (Escobar 1991)Development anthropology is defined as:The application of anthropological perspectives to the multidisciplinary branch of development studies. It takes international development and international aid as primary objects. In this branch of anthropology, the term development refers to the social action made voluntary by different agents (institutions, business, enterprise, states, independent volunteers) who are trying to modify the economic, technical, political or/and social life of a given place in the world, especially in developing nations. (Wikipedia)Development anthropology which takes off from the conventional or traditional view of development is what is being espoused by scholars such as Escobar. The traditional view of development is development according to how Western societies view it which is much more about modernization of local cultures and the adoption of Westernized lifestyle. In the paper, â€Å"Anthropology and the Development Encounter: The Making and Marketing of Development Anthropologyâ€Å", Escobar presented and discussed this view and as conclusion, called for a revision on the practice of development anthropology, specifically in the utilization of development models which he referred to as â€Å"recycled combination of the traditional growth models.†Development anthropology, for all its claim to relevance to local problems, to cultural sensitivity, and to access to interpretive holistic methods, has done no more than recycle, and dress in more localized fabrics, the discourses of modernization and development. Can the good intentions of development anthropologists be preserved and their activities be reoriented significantly in ways that undermine, rather than reinforce, these paradigms? (1991: 677)It is this view that made him towards the end of the article pose the question: Is there a future relev ance for development anthropology? Escobar went on further to conclude that:Anthropological studies of development will of course continue to be important, but they would take a different form. Anthropologists could examine how communities in the Third World are progressively constituted through the political technologies of development, and could elucidate the larger cultural and economic projects that such technologies deploy with them. First, however, it will be necessary to renew our way of listening to the voices of different groups of people in the Third World, without making them into signs of a need for development, and to renew our awareness of the suffering caused by human institutions and actions, development or otherwise.Finally, anthropologists may contribute through this type of work to a collective practice of re-envisioning ways of organizing societies and economies, ways of relating to nature and to one another that have a better chance for life. In the process, we may discover other ways of caring and of healing the ravages brought about by development in the Third World. Some grassroots social movements seem to be pointing the way. (ibid: 678)Escobar emphasizes that it should be the people themselves who should decide on the course of the development process based on what he called â€Å"local realities†. The idea should come from within and not from the perception of outsiders who usually consider the lack of modernization as the take-off point for the development process.In his paper â€Å"Anthropology and Development: Evil Twin or Moral Narrative?†Ã‚   Gow (2002) pointed out the weakness of the localization of development as being espoused by Escobar due to the current trend of globalization. He explains that â€Å". . . the present effects and future implications of globalization (however much contested), surely demonstrate once and for all the limitations of what is now ambiguously termed localization. Certain human needs and human rights can be taken as universal, the basis for a moral narrative in this new millennium of development.† The moral narrative that Gow is referring to is the dilemma of anthropologists (the writers) in   defining development in terms of the vision of a good society.   To quote:By framing the values of development in moral terms, rather than say economic terms (the market) or political terms (democracy), these writers not only escape from the tyranny of ideology, academic discipline, and political fashion; they also elevate the general tone of development discourse, for what they are proposing is a vision of the â€Å"good society†. (ibid: 310)I believe that the current and future relevance of development anthropology depend on whether it follows the path being suggested by Gow, that is, elevating the meaning of development in terms of   the moral vision of a good society.   In this age of satellite technology, when even the remotest places on Earth co uld have access to communication facilities and the mass media, the preservation of local culture is becoming a serious concern.People are influenced by modernization as they are exposed to various forms of technology, and many of them especially the younger generation aspire to leave and prefer to settle for a much modern lifestyle in cities. More than ever, development anthropology is relevant in order to direct the correct path of development wherein the living condition of the poor is alleviated to the point wherein they will have enough basic needs and services while at the same time retaining their cultural identity and who they are as a people is never lost or forgotten.The role of development anthropology therefore should be focused on determining the people’s vision of a good society, and from there the design of a suitable development framework and the conceptualization of strategies that could guide institutions in coming up with the right formula for development. This way, Escobar’s grassroots involvement is compromised while being open to the trend of globalization. An example would be to consider the willingness to commercialize the production of exotic handicrafts which are originally for sole domestic consumption. If the people look at this as a way to alleviate their economic condition while promoting their culture, then the development anthropologist should see this from a positive perspective and not as a sign of moral degradation.Development anthropologists have focused on four themes in performing their role which defines their current and future relevance to humanity.An increasingly focused sense of the anthropological contribution defined in terms of what anthropologists say about culture and social relationsOpposition to the marginalization of indigenous peoples and their knowledgeCynicism about the aims and practices of developmentThe emergence of critical views of development and the development processLIST OF REFERENCES Escobar, Arturo. (1991) ‘Anthropology and the Development Encounter: The Making and Marketing of Development Anthropology.’ American Ethnologist [online] 18 (4) 658-682. Available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/645446 [22 May 2009]Gow, David D. (2002)’Anthropology and Development: Evil Twin or Moral Narrative?’ Human Organization 61 (4) 299-313Wikipedia (n. d.) ‘Development Anthropology.’ Available from http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/Development_anthropology [30 May 2009)